Analytic Cubism: Pablo Picasso

Pablo Picasso is the first name that comes to mind when one mentions Cubism. Picasso pioneered this new art for in the twentieth century and has left an indelible impression on our modern conception of art. Over the course of his career, Picasso refined and reworked his own perception of cubism. His monumental work Guernica combines both Analytic and Synthetic Cubism juxtaposed in a form akin to Surrealism. This painting serves as an important marker in both the art world and the course of history and the world beyond art.

During the 1930s, Picasso spent his time primarily in France among great intellectuals, artists, and lovers. Picasso never returned to his native Spain after a visit in 1934, but he continued to identify as a Spaniard and remained sympathetic to Republican cause during Spanish Civil War which initiated in 1936. He became preoccupied with the war expressing these sentiments in a series of etchings. The largest contribution was of course Guernica, the mural painting commissioned by the Republican government for the 1937 World Fair in Paris. The imagery of the horse, fallen soldier, screaming mother with dead babies, were used to illicit horror and condemnation of the destruction of life and the attack at the hands of the Fascist regime. The bull simultaneously represents hope of overcoming the unseen aggressor that was the Fascist ideology. The dying horse represents the death of civilization and the utter despair this event caused Picasso. The horse though may be rescued by the woman with the lamp (Liberty) who seems to be rushing to its aid. Hope may also be conveyed in combining the shape of an eye with the sun’s rays and lightbulb. Despite the relatively abstract cubist form, Guernica is clearly displaying human mutilation and destruction. Picasso and his Cubist style in this case proved effective in eliciting a guttural response from the viewer.

Nineteenth-Century Impressionism

Claude Monet is known as the quintessential Impressionist painter. Galleries and museums are packed with tourists waiting to see works like Water Lily Pond and Rouen Cathedral. However, it took Monet the span of his career to master Impressionist techniques. An analysis of Monet’s early works of the 1860s compared to later works reveals the development of Impressionist style. As a young 22 year old, Monet studied in France where he met fellow students, most famous among them being Auguste Renoir. Monet experimented with the interplay of light, broken color, and quick brushstrokes which became known as Impressionism.

Monet’s Luncheon on the Grass, started in the spring of 1865, is a good example of his early work. The painting is simultaneously a tribute and a challenge to Manet. The painting includes hints of what is to come, but is generally unsuccessful at conveying Impressionist style. Monet painting with un-blended strokes of white paint to convey bright sunlight through the branches, however, the brushstrokes appear clumsy as if someone spilled white paint on the mens’ suits. Monet eventually abandoned this painting.

In contrast, Water Lily Pond and other depictions of his famous lilies, exemplify the Impressionist style. It was later in his life in 1883 when Monet moved to Giverny where he lived out the rest of his days. By this time in his career, the painter had cultivated his mastery of Impressionist style with vertical arrangements of broken color and rapid brush strokes. His lily paintings embody the watery, ephemeral tone of his work. His water garden was the source of inspiration for his lily paintings. It is not hard to imagine Monet working amidst the luxurious foliage painting the serene pond.

Rococo Art

Benjamin West was an American born painter who served as the second president of the Royal Academy from 1792 to 1805 and 1807 to 1820. In 1772 he was appointed a historical painter to King George III. The painter influenced many young American artists at his London studio including John Singleton Copley. Despite his American roots, the majority of West’s career was spent in England. So why did this promising America artist locate himself in England far from American influence? As a talented young artist he traveled to Italy to study the Neoclassicism that was gaining ground at the time. Two wealthy Philadelphia families paid for this trip so he could be immersed in the European artistic tradition. Wooed by London, he settled in England and became a talented portrait painter where he gained popularity.

Benjamin West, The Death of General Wolfe, c. 1770

The Death of General Wolfe, one of his most popular and controversial works, reveals West’s training in the Classical and commitment to a modern portrayal. His exposure to the Classical style was no doubt cultivated in Italy. The painting is an example of realism with modern dress rather than the Classical draped togas that critics asserts his figures ought to have worn. The togas and Classical dress would convey a universal message, and the modern depiction was considered by some an affront to art history painting. The use of light and melodrama  reflect Baroque style. The North American subject matter is a nod to his native continent. Despite the criticism the painting gained widespread popularity.

Baroque Painting

Dutch painter Rembrandt van Rijn, born in Leiden, became one of the most successful painters of the Baroque period. His commissioned work was usually requested by Protestant patrons, however, Rembrandt operated his own commercial enterprise free from the control and influence of patronage. He wanted his paintings to be valued as his own works rather than the products of some contract. This attitude reflects the rise in Dutch capitalism and the development of a modern art market. At the zenith of his career, Rembrandt was the most famous and honored painter of Amsterdam. The decline of Protestant patronage is reflected in Rembrandt’s art. Secular groups began to commission more paintings.

Rembrandt van Rijn, The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq (known as The Night Watch), 1642.

One such secular painting produced by Rembrandt. The painting shows a militia company departing from Amsterdam on a shooting expedition. The arrangement of the figures in action creates a strong sense of vitality which is reinforced by the strategic use of light and shade. The party emerges from a dark arch reminiscent of the triumphal arches of ancient Rome. It also serves as a reminder of the Dutch overthrow of their Spanish conquerors. The light falls across the two figures at the vanguard of the party. One extends his hand as if to invite the observer to join. The shadow extends the line of his red sash towards his companion in a yellow jacket. This interplay of light, shadow, and colors is typical of Baroque art.
The Night Watch is

Rembrandt displays his prowess in The Night Watch through the employment of various painting techniques. Some details of the painting are evoked minutely whereas other places seem to have been painted very thickly. The piece is clearly masterful and stands out from other militia pieces of the same period because of its striking picturesque, elegant, and powerful execution.

The minute detail of the fore figure’s spear.

http://www.rembrandthuis.nl/en/rembrandt/belangrijkste-werken/de-nachtwacht

Art of the High Renaissance in Italy

Raphael’s School of Athens is full of important figures from the leading schools of ancient Greece unified in this Renaissance masterpiece.  This frescoe is devoted to philosophy as a path to knowledge.

Born after Michelangelo, Raphael most embodied the Classical aspect of the High Renaissance. He relied heavily on translated Greek and Roman texts. His work incorporated the “forms and philosophy of Classical antiquity” (Adams 294). Raphael’s career began in Florence but he soon moved to Rome where he created The School of Athens. In this painting the 21 figurers (many philosophers) are lined up on the steps in distinct groupings. They are engaged in conversation, work, or games. Pythagoras demonstrates his system of proportions, Diogenes lounges on the steps, and Greek mathematician Euclid discusses geometry and draws aided by a compass.  Apollo and Athena are also represented in the two monumental statues on either side of the arch.

Framed by the center arch, in the central vanishing point of the painting, stand the two most well-known Greek philosophers: Plato and Aristotle. Each carries their seminal works: for Plato it is Timaeus and for Aristotle- Nichomachean Ethics. 

The School of Athens is a truly great example of rich iconography. Raphael even represents himself sociably in contrast with Michelangelo’s brooding. Raphael relates to his colleagues and companions whereas Michelangelo is notably isolated. The division represents an ongoing competitive rivalry between the artists. 

The Early Renaissance: A tri-leveled analysis of the Ghent Altarpiece.

Jan van Eyck, Ghent Altarpiece (open), completed 1432. Oil on panel, aprox. 11 ft. 6 in. x 5 in.

Using Erwin Pankofsky’s (of the Warburg Institute) iconographic analysis method, I will explore some of the images in the incredibly complex Ghent Altarpiece.  On the “pre-iconographic” level you immediately notice a large kingly seated figure dressed in red robes, flanked by a crowned woman and barefooted man. The next panels radiating from the center show groups of women playing musical instruments, and the next panels are a naked man and woman covering their bodies with their hands and leaves. The lower five panels are segments of a contiguous scene. The most important scene at the center features a lamb surrounded by worshippers and adorers.This scene is called the Adoration of the Lamb by All Saints. 

The second level of analysis leads us to briefly examine some textual features of the altarpiece. The inscriptions on the frame below the panels of singing angels references a theme of laudatory thanksgiving which is essential to Christian liturgy. There is some difference in the two angels panels so that the singing angels are adorned with more religious symbols such as the crossed on their heads. This distinguishes them as more important that the performing angels (as musical instruments were typically not allowed in Christian service because they were associated with the secular).

Finally, the images of the Adoration of the Lamb panel deserve special attention. The lamb is surrounded by four symmetrical groups of figures. The left group are Old Testament figures who predicted the advent of Christ. The poet Virgil is depicted among them. The Old Testament group is balanced by a New Testament group on the right. The New Testament group is placed on the right because it takes precedence over the Old Testament as more significant for Christians. The panel’s literary source is the Book of Revelation, which is typically read on All Saint’s Day- hence the panel’s title. The Lamb is a typical symbol of Christ’s sacrifice by dying on the cross for humankind.

Jan van Eyck, Ghent Altarpiece (open), completed 1432. Oil on panel, aprox. 11 ft. 6 in. x 5 in.

Gothic Art: The rich iconography of the Chartes Cathedral rose window.

Rose window and lancets, north transept, Chartres Cathedral, 13th century.

The unity of French society found its expression in the construction of cathedrals. The Chartres cathedral is certainly a testament to the French mastery of cathedral building and artistry.In gothic art stained glass windows served as more than artistic adornment. They were a story-telling method that gave life to the stories of the Bible and reflected the reality of life in that time period. The brilliant sunlight filtering through window would have created a dazzling display conveying God’s presence. It was important for practical reasons to represent religious importance visually through symbols and iconography, because the majority of people were illiterate.

In particular the large rose window adorning the north facade of the cathedral over the main entrance is exemplary of religious iconography embodied in every inch of the cathedral.  Below the rose window are five slender lancets featuring various religious iconography. The rose window itself displays magnificent symmetry. The window depicts symbolic Christian significance in the arrangement of geographic figures. Even the circularity of the window represents Christ, God, and the universality of the Church. The Virgin Mary is centered in the window emphasizing her importance in the Catholic religion as the mother of Christ and testify to Chartres’s importance as a shrine of worship in her honor. There are approximately 175 images of the Virgin in the Chartres.

The next geometric arrangement represents four doves and eight Old Testament Kings of Judah. The Kings of JUdah ruled over the Kingdom of Judah that chose David to rule it and eventually became king of reunited Israel. Each geometric arraignment is numbered by twelve. The order of these designs testify to the order that the Catholic Church provided in the time period. The outer quatrefoils bare the gold lilies of the king of France and were acknowledgment of his patronage for the Church and cathedral. The unique hue of deep blue seen in this rose window is unique to the cathedral and is called “Chartres blue.” The color is attributed to Mary and symbolizes her purity.

The Early Middle Ages

Four Evangelists, from a carolingian Gospel book, Palace Chapel school, Aachen, early 9th century.

The Four Evangelists come from a Carolingian Gospel book. The four figures depicted are of course the four disciples from whom the four gospels came. The evangelists appear against a background of rolling hill seated at oblique desks seated in natural poses. The men are Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. We can assume that they are working in their gospels at these writing desks. The angel, eagle, lion, and bull are symbols that represent these four evangelists. The man/angel stands for Saint Matthew, the eagle for Saint John, the lion for Saint Marks, and the bull for Saint Luke. The winged man or angel is appropriated to Matthew because he begins the gospel with the human life of Christ. His writings deal more with Our Lord’s humanity than his divine nature. The lion is for St. Mark. The lion is a power symbol reflecting God’s power in resurrecting Christ from the dead. The lion was a symbol of resurrection. St. Luke is the bull or the winged ox. The bull is a symbol of sacrifice and atonement. St. John is the eagle which stands for soaring in spirit up to the heavens to retriece the sublime mysteries.

Ancient Rome

Augustus Prima Porta, early 1st century A.D. Marble, 6ft. 8 in. Musei Vaticani, Rome, Italy

Augustus Prima Porta depicts the famous first emperor of Rome Augustus Caesar. Unlike Greek sculpture, the entire marble figure is detached from the original block of stone from which it came. There is free space between his limbs and clothing. At his right calf rests a cherub. His other leg is slightly bent as if he is walking forward in the direction he points. His right hip is also slightly more forward than the other. The cherub is reaching up towards Caesar with his left arm and his gaze is also pointed upwards. Interestingly Augustus Caesar has no shoes on. The scale of the statue at 6ft 8in is a plausible but unlikely real life height for the great Emperor. He appears to be wearing some sort of breast plate. The breast plate itself features all sorts of detailed carvings. The gathered cloth in his arms are very realistic and feature folds and wrinkles. At the bottom of his garment even tassels are visible. The statue appears to be in plain marble now, but at its creation the sculpture would have been painted with all sorts of colors to make appear more life like. Augustus’s body is positioned at an angle and this diagonal plane is emphasized by his arm and hand pointing off into the distance. There is less tension in his other hand that holds the garment. It is relaxed, not gripping anything. The statue is a more naturalist perspective than was seen in sculpture and art previously. His hair is even depicted in detail. Caesar is well proportioned and his features are defined but not overly angular. There is attention to displaying accurate human proportions in this sculpture. Augustus Caesar’s knees and calves are sculpted and his arms feature the musculature of biceps. The face of Augustus Caesar is quite stoic.